AO1: Natural moral law
- Natural Law is an absolutist ethical theory developed by Thomas Aquinas.
- It combines deontological and teleological elements.
- It is deontological because it gives fixed moral rules, but teleological because these rules are based on human purpose (telos).
- Aquinas was influenced by Aristotle, who argued that everything has a natural purpose.
- For humans, this purpose is to flourish and ultimately glorify God.
- Natural Law teaches that God designed human nature with reason, allowing us to understand moral rules.
- It also has biblical support from the Bible, for example the idea that moral law is “written on the heart” (Romans 2), and that humans are made in God’s image (Genesis 1:27), giving them a rational moral nature.
- Aquinas explains morality using four tiers of law.
- The Eternal Law is God’s overall plan for the universe.
- The Divine Law is revealed in scripture.
- The Natural Law is the moral law built into human reason.
- Human Law refers to laws made by society, which should be based on higher laws.
- Humans use reason to recognise a basic rule: do good and avoid evil.
- From this, we derive the primary precepts: preserve life, reproduce, educate children, live in an ordered society, and worship God.
- We then apply these to particular situations to form secondary precepts.
- For example, from “preserve life” we may conclude “murder is wrong” or “euthanasia is wrong.”
- This shows how general principles guide specific moral decisions.
- The doctrine of double effect allows some flexibility.
- An action with good and bad effects can be allowed if the good effect is intended, the bad effect is not intended, and there is proportionality between them.
- Modern proportionalists like Hoose accept Natural Law’s focus on human flourishing and the importance of the primary precepts.
- However, they argue that in a fallen world, strictly following these precepts can sometimes reduce overall flourishing.
- They therefore allow that precepts may be broken if there is a proportionate reason, meaning the action produces more ontic good than harm.
- This makes Natural Law more flexible and shifts it towards a more consequentialist approach, where outcomes play a greater role in moral judgement.
AO2: Whether Natural law is outdated
- Natural Law may be outdated because it reflects medieval conditions.
- John Stuart Mill argued biblical morality suited a more “barbaric” time.
- Aquinas’ precepts also reflect this context.
- Strict rules on sex, reproduction, and killing made sense when survival was fragile and social order was unstable.
- Today, contraception, welfare, and lower crime rates mean these conditions no longer apply.
- So, the reasoning behind Natural Law’s rules may no longer be relevant.
Counter
- Aquinas would argue that Natural Law comes from God, so it cannot become outdated.
- If society changes its views, then society is wrong, not the moral law.
Evaluation
- The strongest version of this critique is not just that opinions have changed, but that Natural Law itself was shaped by its historical context.
- Aquinas believed he discovered universal moral truths through reason, but it may be simpler to say he identified what worked best for his society.
- If the precepts reflect social conditions rather than divine design, then they lose their authority once those conditions change.
- So, Natural Law is not just unpopular today, but potentially based on a mistaken assumption about its origin.
AO2: Natural law ethics & Cross-cultural moral variation
- Natural Law claims all humans can use reason to discover the same moral truths.
- However, Joseph Fletcher argues that different cultures have different moral beliefs.
- For example, some allow euthanasia while others ban it.
- These differences often follow cultural boundaries, suggesting morality comes from social conditioning rather than universal reason.
- Psychologists like Sigmund Freud support this view.
Counter
- Aquinas would argue there is still a core of agreement across cultures.
- Most societies value life, order, education, and reproduction.
- Disagreement may be due to error, sin, or cultural distortion rather than the absence of Natural Law.
Evaluation
- However, these shared values can be explained without Natural Law.
- Dawkins argues moral instincts evolved to support cooperation and survival.
- Societies also need rules like “do not kill” to function.
- So, both agreement and disagreement can be explained through evolution and social conditioning.
- This makes Aquinas’ idea of a God-given moral law unnecessary.
- Natural Law becomes a weaker explanation compared to scientific accounts of how moral beliefs develop.
AO2: Proportionalism & the double effect
- Proportionalists like Hoose argue Natural Law is too rigid.
- They claim that in a fallen world, following strict rules can sometimes reduce human flourishing.
- So, actions should be judged by whether they produce more overall good (ontic good) than harm.
- This allows flexibility, even permitting actions normally seen as wrong.
Counter
- Pope John Paul II rejects this.
- He argues the purpose of ethics is to follow God’s moral law, not maximise outcomes.
- Some actions are intrinsically wrong, and it is better to suffer or even die than commit them.
Evaluation
- John Paul II is right that Natural Law is meant to prioritise obedience to God, not human happiness.
- However, proportionalists show that real-life situations can be more complex.
- Cases like Fletcher’s example of killing one child to save your other children highlight the limits of rigid rules.
- Sacrificing your own life to avoid evil is one thing JP2 has a point about, but sacrificing the lives of others seems different.
- If following a rule leads to greater harm, it seems morally problematic.
- So, while proportionalism risks weakening moral absolutes, it better reflects the challenges of moral decision-making in a world affected by suffering and difficult choices.
AO1: Strengths and Weaknesses of Natural Law ethics
- Weakness: Natural Law may be outdated because its rules were shaped by medieval conditions that no longer apply today.
- Strength: Natural Law claims its moral rules come from God and reason, so they remain universally valid regardless of social change.
- Weakness: Different cultures have different moral beliefs, suggesting morality is shaped by society rather than universal reason.
- Strength: Natural Law argues there is a shared core of moral values across cultures, showing a common rational basis for ethics.
- Weakness: Natural Law can be too rigid, as strict rules may lead to greater harm in complex situations.
- Strength: Natural Law provides clear moral rules and avoids justifying harmful actions based on consequences.