AO1: religious concepts of equality (gender)
- Christian views on gender equality have developed significantly over time, reflecting both continuity and change.
- In the ancient world, women were generally subordinate, and early Christian texts often reflect this.
- Genesis presents Eve as a “helper,” and Paul restricts women’s authority, instructing wives to submit to their husbands, though husbands must love sacrificially.
- Later theologians like Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas reinforced this hierarchy, linking women to domestic roles and male leadership.
- However, the New Testament also shows women in active roles, such as Junia as an apostle and Phoebe as a deacon, suggesting tension within early Christianity.
- Modern debates are often framed as complementarianism vs egalitarianism.
- Complementarians argue men and women are equal in value but have different God-given roles, supporting male leadership in church and family.
- This view is upheld by the Roman Catholic Church and many Evangelicals.
- Egalitarians argue that gender roles are culturally shaped and that men and women should have equal authority.
- They draw on Galatians 3:28 (‘there is no male nor female.. All are one in christ’) and highlight female leadership in early Christianity.
- Feminist theologians like Rosemary Radford Ruether argue for a “golden thread” of equality within scripture.
- As a result, some churches now ordain women, while others (Catholics) reject this, showing that Christianity contains both traditional and progressive interpretations of gender equality.
AO1: secular ethical concepts of equality (utilitarianism)
- Secular views on gender equality are rooted in Enlightenment liberalism, which emphasised reason, individual rights, and equality.
- Thinkers rejected traditional religious authority and argued that all humans possess equal moral worth as rational individuals.
- This led to political movements for equality, including women’s rights and the rejection of legal and social discrimination.
- Secular liberalism therefore frames equality as a matter of freedom and autonomy rather than divine command.
- Utilitarianism develops this further by grounding equality in the principle of maximising happiness.
- It treats all individuals’ pleasure as equally important, regardless of gender, race, or status.
- John Stuart Mill, influenced by Harriet Taylor Mill, applied this to gender equality.
- He argued that discrimination against women reduces overall happiness by restricting freedom and opportunity.
- Mill’s harm principle states that individuals should be free to act as they wish, provided they do not harm others.
- This supports gender equality by opposing systems like patriarchy, where women’s freedom is limited.
- Mill also criticised social expectations that restrict individuals’ life choices, including gender roles.
- He believed each person must be free to discover their own way of living to achieve happiness.
- Overall, secular views emphasise equality as equal freedom and equal consideration of interests, leading to strong support for gender equality in both law and society.
AO1: One significant figure: Simone De Beauvoir (gender)
- Simone de Beauvoir was a key 20th-century thinker who campaigned for gender equality through philosophy and activism.
- Writing in the context of post-Enlightenment secular thought, she applied existentialism to the issue of women’s oppression.
- In The Second Sex, she famously argued that “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.”
- This means gender roles are not natural or biologically fixed, but socially constructed through culture and expectations.
- De Beauvoir argued that historically men have been treated as the norm or “subject,” while women have been defined as the “Other.”
- This has justified limiting women to roles such as motherhood and domestic life.
- She criticised these constraints as preventing women from exercising genuine freedom and self-determination.
- Influenced by existentialism, she believed that humans create their own identity through choices.
- Therefore, true equality requires women to reject imposed roles and assert their freedom.
- She also criticised social and economic systems that restricted women’s opportunities, including lack of access to work and education.
- De Beauvoir’s work helped inspire second-wave feminism, which pushed for legal and social equality.
- Her ideas continue to influence debates about gender, identity, and autonomy.
- Overall, she presents equality as the freedom for individuals to define themselves rather than be defined by society.
AO2: Whether liberal Christianity is a solution
- Liberal Christians offer a clear solution to sexism by rejecting biblical literalism and traditional hierarchy.
- They accept women’s ordination and are open to equality in gender and sexuality.
- By not treating the Bible as perfect, they can ignore or reinterpret sexist passages.
- This makes Christianity compatible with modern feminist values.
Counter
- However, Daly and Hampson argue liberal Christians are still shaped by sexist texts.
- Even non-literal reading exposes believers to patriarchal ideas.
- Feminist sociology suggests repeated exposure creates unconscious bias.
- So, liberal Christianity may still subtly reinforce sexism.
Evaluation
- This criticism is partly weak because liberal Christians are clearly less sexist than traditionalists.
- Occasional exposure to sexist ideas is unlikely to sustain bias without a wider patriarchal culture.
- However, a stronger problem is that liberal Christianity is declining, while conservative forms remain stable or growing.
- This suggests the liberal project is failing to reshape Christianity overall.
- So, although liberal Christianity reduces sexism, it is unlikely to succeed as a long-term solution.
- Daly and Hampson are therefore broadly right that abandoning Christianity is the more reliable way to protect women’s interests.
AO2: religious vs feminist views on ‘female nature’
- John Paul II argues complementarianism is not sexist but reflects God-given purposes.
- Women are naturally oriented towards motherhood and self-giving love.
- This “telos” supports traditional roles as fulfilling rather than oppressive.
- Cross-cultural gender roles are taken as evidence these differences are natural.
Counter
- Mill argues these roles result from historical male dominance, not nature.
- Men used physical power to create social systems that benefit themselves.
- De Beauvoir develops this, claiming gender roles are socially constructed.
- Appeals to “nature” can function as ideology to justify inequality.
Evaluation
- The feminist critique is more convincing because it better explains how power shapes beliefs.
- People tend to accept ideas that serve their interests without recognising this bias.
- Religious claims about telos can therefore reflect patriarchal assumptions rather than truth.
- Even if biology plays some role, variation between individuals undermines fixed roles for all women.
- So, JP2’s claim that motherhood defines female nature is too rigid to be credible.
- It is more likely a rationalisation of existing power structures than a genuine insight into human nature.
AO2: John Paul II on Mary and feminist critique
- John Paul II defends traditional Christian views on gender by appealing to the dignity of women in Mulieris Dignitatem.
- He argues that Christianity cannot be sexist because it highly values Mary, the mother of Jesus.
- As the mother of God, Mary has a unique relationship with God, representing the highest human fulfilment.
- She is presented as an “archetype” of female dignity and a model for both men and women.
- For John Paul II, this shows that women have a distinct but equally valuable role, especially through motherhood.
Counter
- Feminist thinkers argue this defence reinforces sexism.
- Simone de Beauvoir claimed that in Christianity a woman becomes a “blessed saint” only by being man’s docile servant.
- Through her existentialist lens, such ideals pressure women to live inauthentically rather than freely choosing their identity.
- Mary becomes a symbol of submission, reinforcing expectations of obedience.
Evaluation
- This critique is persuasive because valuing Mary may reinforce traditional gender roles.
- It suggests women are valued only if they conform to a submissive ideal.
- Although John Paul II aims to affirm dignity, his argument embeds it within a patriarchal framework.
- From Beauvoir’s view, this limits women’s freedom to define themselves.
- Therefore, the appeal to Mary fails to defend Christianity from sexism and instead highlights limits on female autonomy.
AO1: strengths and weaknesses of religious vs secular views on equality (gender)
Strength = strength of religious view and weakness of secular view.
Weakness = weakness of religious view and strength of secular view.
- Strength: Liberal Christianity supports equality by reinterpreting and modernising the Bible, avoiding treating sexist passages as God’s word.
- Weakness: Religious texts still contain patriarchal passages even if reinterpreted, which can continue to unconsciously influence attitudes.
- Strength: Religious views can value men and women equally while giving them different roles, rather than treating all roles as identical.
- Weakness: Fixed gender roles can reflect social power structures and limit equality.
- Strength: Religious belief can promote the dignity of women through figures like Mary, rather than ignoring female value.
- Weakness: Religious ideals of female obedience can limit freedom and reinforce inequality.